Mastering Key English Grammar Concepts and Vocabulary

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns connect a clause to a noun or pronoun. They include:

• which: used for objects or animals.
• who: used for people.
• when: refers to time.
• where: refers to place.

THAT: can replace who, which, or when. It can also replace where, but a preposition must be added at the end of the sentence.

Prepositions in Relative Clauses

If the relative clause contains a verb that is associated with a specific preposition, the preposition is usually placed at the end of the clause.

When the preposition refers to a place, you can use:

• where (without a preposition)
• that or which (with the preposition at the end)

Omission of Relative Pronouns

The relative pronoun can be omitted if it is the object of the relative clause. If it is followed by a subject and a verb, it is likely the object. The pronoun cannot be omitted if it is the subject of the relative clause.

Whose

WHOSE indicates possession or belonging.

Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Non-Defining relative clauses provide extra information about the antecedent. This information is not essential for understanding the main sentence, so it is placed between commas. That is never used in non-defining clauses, and the pronoun can never be omitted.

Travel and Migration Vocabulary

• abroad / en el extranjero
• border / frontera
• culture shock / choque cultural
• currency / moneda
• custom / costumbre
• expatriate / persona que ha abandonado su país
• foreign / extranjero
• foreigner / extranjero, extranjera
• homesick / que echa de menos su país
• hometown / lugar de nacimiento
• inhabitant / habitante
• mother tongue / lengua materna
• crossing / travesía
• journey / viaje (trayecto de ida o de vuelta)
• travel / viaje (general term)
• trip / viaje (completo, de ida y vuelta)
• voyage / viaje (por mar)
• arrivals hall / (sala de) llegadas
• baggage reclaim / recogida de equipaje
• boarding gate / puerta de embarque
• check-in desk / mostrador de facturación
• customs / aduana
• departure lounge / salidas, zona de embarque
• passport control / control de pasaportes

The Passive Voice

Present Simple Passive

The structure is be + Past Participle (-ed or irregular - 3rd column). In the active voice, the subject is also the agent and performs the action. When changing to the passive voice, the object of the active voice becomes the subject.

Example: Music companies advertised the CD (Active). The CD was advertised by music companies (Passive).

Passive Verb Forms (Examples)

• Past Simple: painted / was painted
• Present Continuous: is taking / is being taken
• Present Perfect: has/have taken / has/have been taken
• Past Perfect: had taken / had been taken
• Will: will take / will be taken
• Be Going To: going to take / going to be taken
• Modal Verbs (can, must, should): can/must/should take / can/must/should be taken

Omission of the Agent

The agent (introduced by by + agent) is omitted when:

• The agent is unknown.
• The agent is unimportant or obvious.
• The speaker/writer does not want to mention the agent.

Changing from Active to Passive

1. Identify the object of the active sentence.
2. Place it at the beginning of the passive sentence (it becomes the new subject).
3. Determine the tense of the active verb.
4. Use the correct passive verb form (from the list above).
5. Decide if it is necessary to add by + agent.

To change from passive to active, follow the same steps in reverse.

Have Something Done (The Causative)

The causative structure is built with have (in any tense) + object + past participle.

It is used for actions that we arrange for someone else to do for us, rather than doing them ourselves. As with the passive voice, it is not always necessary to specify the agent of the action.

When someone performs an action that would usually be done by another person, a reflexive pronoun is added (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves).

Animals and Nature Vocabulary

• breed / reproducirse
• cage / jaula
• endangered species / especie(s) en peligro de extinción
• ethical / ético
• experiment / experimento
• extinct / extinguido
• factory farm / granja de cría intensiva
• free-range / de granja (referring to animals/products)
• human guinea pig / conejillo de Indias humano
• mistreat / maltratar
• research / investigación
• tame / domar
• wildlife / flora y fauna
• feed (on) / alimentarse (de)
• food chain / cadena alimenticia
• give birth to / parir, dar a luz a
• hibernate / hibernar
• lay eggs / poner huevos
• mammal / mamífero
• offspring / cría(s)
• prey / presa
• young / cría(s)

Animal Idioms

• get it straight from the horse’s mouth / saber algo de primera mano
• have butterflies in (your) stomach / estar nervioso
• let the cat out of the bag / desvelar un secreto
• take the bull by the horns / coger el toro por los cuernos
• wouldn’t hurt a fly / no haría daño ni a una mosca