Mastering Key English Grammar and Vocabulary Concepts

This document provides a concise overview of essential English grammar rules and vocabulary, designed to enhance your language proficiency. It covers fundamental building blocks like suffixes and prefixes, common collocations, and crucial grammatical structures such as the passive voice, reported speech, and conditional sentences.

Vocabulary Building Blocks

Suffixes

Suffixes are word endings that modify the meaning or grammatical function of a word. Here are some examples of words with common suffixes:

• punishment - castigo
• neighborhood - vecindario
• weakness - debilidad
• attendance - asistencia
• generosity - generosidad
• valuable - valioso
• supported - apoyado
• excellence - excelencia
• demanding - exigente
• financial - financiero
• hardship - dificultad
• concerned - preocupado
• worthless - inútil
• appliance - aparato/dispositivo
• doubtful - dudoso

Prefixes

Prefixes are word beginnings that change the meaning of a word, often indicating negation, direction, or degree:

• disappear - desaparecer
• impractical - poco práctico
• intercity - interurbano
• misunderstood - malinterpretar
• overpopulated - superpoblado
• underestimate - subestimar
• underpaid - poco pagado

Common Collocations & Expressions

Prepositional Phrases

Many verbs and adjectives are followed by specific prepositions:

• concerned about
• different from
• devoted to
• famous for
• guilty of
• involved in
• similar to
• responsible for
• satisfied with
• pleased with

Common prepositions and their meanings:

• for - por
• with - con
• at - en
• of - de

Phrasal Verbs & Idioms

These are common expressions and phrasal verbs:

• bring up - educar
• aware of - consciente de
• behave - comportarse
• refuse - negarse
• stand up for - defender

"Make" and "Take" Collocations

These verbs combine with nouns to form common expressions:

• make an appointment - hacer una cita
• make arrangements - hacer planes
• make sense - tener sentido
• take a break - tomarse un descanso
• take charge of - hacerse cargo de
• take steps - tomar medidas

Thematic Vocabulary

Unit 3 Vocabulary

• book in advance - reservar con antelación
• get closer - acercarse más

Unit 5 Vocabulary

• disease - enfermedad
• distress - dolor/agotamiento
• surroundings - entorno
• blend in - integrarse
• deceive - engañar
• threaten - amenazar
• treat - tratar
• poisonous - venenoso
• disguise oneself - ocultarse

Unit 4 Vocabulary

• disturb - alterar
• get rid of - desechar
• use up - gastar

Essential English Grammar Concepts

The Passive Voice

The passive voice is used when the focus is on the action rather than the doer of the action. The structure involves the verb to be followed by the past participle of the main verb. The verb to be takes the tense of the original active verb.

Examples of passive forms across different tenses:

• Present Simple: is built
• Past Simple: was built
• Past Continuous: was being built
• Past Perfect: had been built
• Past Perfect Continuous: had been being built

The Causative

The causative structure is used when the subject does not perform the action themselves but arranges for someone else to do it for them. For example, "I'm going to have my hair cut" means someone else will cut your hair, not you.

The verb have (or get) takes the tense of the sentence.

Example:

• I must have a photo taken.

Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)

When reporting what someone said, the verb tense typically shifts one step back into the past. However, modal verbs like should, could, would, and might, and semi-modals like ought to and used to, generally do not change.

Example of tense shift:

• Original: "I was studying English."
• Reported: She said she had been studying English.

Time and place expressions also change in reported speech:

• now - then
• today - that day
• yesterday - the previous day
• tomorrow - the next/following day
• next week - the following week
• last week - the previous week
• ago - before
• this - that
• these - those
• here - there
• come - go
• bring - take

Special Reported Speech Structures

1. Statements: Use a reporting verb like said, followed by that (optional).
   Example: He said that he was tired.
2. Questions:
   • Yes/No Questions: Use if or whether.
     Example: "Do you like tea?" → He asked me if I liked tea.
   • Wh-Questions: Use the question word.
     Example: "Where have you been?" → He asked me where I had been.
3. Orders/Commands: Use to + infinitive or not to + infinitive.
   Example: He ordered me to stand up.
4. Suggestions: Use suggested + -ing or suggested that + subject + should + infinitive.
   Example: "Let's go to the cinema." → He suggested going to the cinema or He suggested that she should go to the cinema.

Common Reporting Verbs

• advised (aconsejar) + indirect object + to + infinitive: He advised me to...
• warned (advertir) + indirect object + to + infinitive: He warned me to go...
• offered + to + infinitive: He offered to...
• reminded + indirect object + to + infinitive: He reminded me to...
• remarked + that clause: He remarked that...

Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences express a condition and its result. They often use if or unless (meaning "if not").

• Type 0 (Zero Conditional): For objective truths or general facts.
  Structure: If + Present Simple, Present Simple
  Example: If you heat ice, it melts.
• Type 1 (First Conditional): For probable future events.
  Structure: If + Present Simple, Future / Modal / Imperative
  Example: If it rains, we will stay home.
• Type 2 (Second Conditional): For impossible or hypothetical present/future situations.
  Structure: If + Past Simple, Conditional (would/could/might/should + infinitive)
  Example: If I had a million dollars, I would buy a house.
• Type 3 (Third Conditional): For regrets about past events that cannot be changed.
  Structure: If + Past Perfect, Conditional Perfect (would have + past participle)
  Example: If I had studied, I would have passed the test.

Wish Clauses (If Only)

"Wish" or "If only" expresses a desire for a different reality. The verb tense used after "wish" or "if only" is typically one step back from the actual time being referred to.

• For Present or Future (same subject): Use Past Simple.
  Example: I wish I passed the test. (Meaning: I wish I were passing the test now, or would pass it in the future.)
• For Present or Future (different subject, expressing annoyance/desire for change): Use would + infinitive.
  Example: I wish the children would stop making noise.
• For Past Regrets: Use Past Perfect.
  Example: I wish I had passed the test. (Meaning: I regret not passing the test in the past.)

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs express various functions like ability, obligation, possibility, etc. To express past actions with modals, add have + Past Participle (PP).

• Ability: can, could (Past: could have + PP)
• Obligation: must, have to, had to
• Lack of Necessity: don't have to, needn't, didn't have to + infinitive
• Prohibition: mustn't
• Advice: should, ought to (Past: should have + PP, ought to have + PP)
• Possibility: may, might, could (Past: may have + PP, might have + PP, could have + PP)
• Positive Certainty: must (Past: must have + PP)
  Example: The film must be really funny.
• Negative Certainty: can't (Past: can't have + PP)

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses provide additional information about a noun. They are introduced by relative pronouns or adverbs.

• who - (quien/que, for people)
• which - (que, for things)
• when - (cuando)
• where - (donde)
• whose - (cuyo/a, for possession)

Important Note: If the relative clause provides non-essential information (i.e., it refers to a proper noun or something already clearly identified), it is enclosed in commas (non-defining relative clause). If it provides essential information, no commas are used (defining relative clause).