Fundamentos Filosóficos: Conceptos Clave sobre el Ser, la Moral y la Existencia

“Sôma”, cuerpo sin vida, el cadáver. Mientras vive, las referencias del cuerpo se hacen a partir de las partes visibles. No hay aún distinción entre lo puramente físico y lo psíquico

“Psyché”

El principio que hace posible la vida y el movimiento

La sombra o el doble del muerto, que pasa a habitar el Hades.

Son otros los que van fijando aquello que somos

“Thymós”, voluntad o carácter de una persona

“Nóos”, capacidad para representarnos las cosas

El máximo bien consiste en lograr el reconocimiento de los demás, mientras que el mayor mal sería cosechar su burla o desprecio. El objetivo de la vida es el honor, Para lo cual será fundamental cultivar la virtud.

El hombre es el animal que habla, un animal político.

La concepción mecanicista del cosmo, tuvo lugar entre los siglos XVI y XVIII, en lo que se refiere al cuerpo. La ilustración se construirá como un movimiento que se reivindica que el ser humano va camino de alcanzar “la mayoría de edad”. La razón, que pasa a construirse ahora en el tribunal que establecerá qué creencias se mantendrán. Su lema será “atrévete a saber”, piensa por ti mismo. Las reivindicaciones políticas formarán parte de la lucha por la emancipación humana y la cuestión de la legitimidad del Antiguo Régimen.

Cosmología: el hombre no ocupa un lugar privilegiado en el universo.

Evolucionista o antropología: el ser humano es un mono evolucionario.

Socioeconómica: es la vida del marco socioeconómico el que determina la conciencia, nuestras creencias,...

Psicoanalítica: la mayor parte de nuestra mente tiene un carácter inconsciente, el cual nos resulta inaccesible.

El ser humano construye su propia identidad a medida que va tomando decisiones nos lleva a tener que elegir y asumir la responsabilidad generando sentimientos de angustia.

El hombre obra según los patrones sociales y culturales que le han otorgado su identidad, pretendíó explicar todos los comportamientos sociales e individuales, a partir de  patrones de conducta innatos.

El reconocimiento de que somos un ser singular dotado de sentimientos y pensamientos particulares origina la percepción de nosotros mismos como un yo, distinto de los demás seres humanos que nos rodean.

Panteísmo: creen en un Dios que se identifica con la unidad de todo lo existente. Dios y naturaleza serían lo mismo.

Teísmo: creen en un Dios creador del universo, que, además, puede intervenir en los acontecimientos que suceden en él.

Deísmo: creen en un Dios que es la causa y el fundamento del mundo, pero que no intervienen en él.

Acción animal, preprogramada o determinada, el comportamiento humano se define por ser abierto y libre, por ese motivo es responsable de sus actos.

Un sujeto es moral si actúa de acuerdo a las normas asumidas, o inmoral si se las salta. Pero no puede ser amoral. El ser humano es inevitablemente un ser moral.

Precepto de conducta que la conciencia moral considera obligatorio, porque reconocemos su valor, no porque haya una ley que lo mande.

El ámbito del ser es el ámbito de la naturaleza; ámbito del deber el ámbito de la moral.

Presupone la libertad aunque sea de obligado cumplimiento, por ello, poseen un doble carácter: de libertad y de obligatoriedad.

Dimensión social: todas las comunidades poseen un código de normas; explícitas en códigos legales, que constituye el derecho positivo; implícitas los usos y costumbres de esa comunidad.

Dimensión personal: la conciencia moral es la instancia que asimila estas normas.

Tienen polaridad. Se constituyen en parejas de opuestos. Así la belleza corresponde a la fealdad; a lo justo, lo injusto,....

Tienen carácter ideal. Señalán nuestros ideales, lo que es valioso y digno de alcanzarse. 

Los sofistas identificaron la moral como una simple convencíón (un acuerdo entre los miembros de una comunidad). Entre los sofistas destacó Protágoras de Abdera, conocido por su sentencia: “El hombre es la medida de todas las cosas”.

Sócrates presenta la primera teoría ética que defiende la existencia de valores objetivos y universales (como el bien y la justicia).

Según Sócrates, el conocimiento del bien conlleva su práctica, quien actúa mal lo hace por ignorancia.

Hedonismo, doctrina que identifica el placer con el bien.

Para los cirenaicos, la finalidad de nuestra vida es el placer, entendido como goce sensorial. A diferencia de ellos, el epicureísmo define el placer como la mera ausencia de dolor y perturbaciones.

Las éticas de la justicia, una condición indispensable de la misma imparcialidad, suelen ser éticas formales.

Según Kant, hay que optar por una ética formal y garantizar la autonomía moral, no tiene contenido, no consiste en una lista de normas y preceptos que tenemos que seguir la ética.

La razón humana, según Kant debe dictarse la ley a sí misma. Solo así, la ley será universal, la ley moral se expresa mediante el imperativo categórico.

Según Habermas una norma debe ser universal en el ámbito de la comunidad de diálogo.

What do the defenders of the orphism and Pythagorism of the psyche claim? What idea does Plato collect from this influence?
The proponents of Orphism and
Pythagorism interpreted the "psyché" as a spiritual entity, the soul, of supernatural and immortal origin, while the body was simple corruptible matter. When a soul is expelled from the divine world, it is locked in a body from which it will not be freed until it dies. Plato defends the idea the soul leaves the body, its future will depend on how it has lived in it.

Point to the conception of human beings in atomists. What happens after the death of the body?

The atomists and Epicurus opted for a materialistic conception according to which everything that exists, including bodies and souls, are composed of atoms and emptiness. Body and soul are matter so the possibility of the existence of the self after the death of the body is rejected. When we die, the atomic configuration that defines us begins to crumble. Every atom will continúe to exist forever, but we don't.

Point out the difference between the gods of Greco-Román polytheism and the Christian God

In Greco-Román polytheism, the gods resembled human beings, and their behavior reflected human evils and virtues. On the contrary, Christianity believed in a spiritual God, almighty and gifted with perfection that had created man in his image and likeness.

Characterize the concept of personal God in Christianity

Man can maintain a relationship of intimacy with God through prayer. Every human being must cleanse the original sin through baptism by committing to make good use of God's granted freedom.

What will the feeling of universal love lead to?

The feeling of universal love will give rise to the need to know how to forgive those who offend us.

What was the purpose of developing a Christian philosophy?

The objective of the elaboration of a Christian philosophy, by St. Augustine of Hippo or St. Thomas Aquinas, was to make more understandable controversial issues such as the relationship between reason and faith.

What happens during Humanism?

During humanism, medieval culture of a theocentric character becomes an anthropocentric culture. Human beings are more optimistic about the possibility of enjoying earthly life. The humanists extolled the intellectual and moral autonomy of the individual. 

Point out the difference in the conception of life between medieval Christian thought and

Renaissance thinkers

Medieval Christian thought conceived life as a simple process for salvation or eternal condemnation. Renaissance thinkers claimed the intrinsic valúe of existence and, within it, the creative capacity of the human being.

Point out the different positions on the existence and the possibility of knowing the Absolute

Theism God exists and it is possible to know him and access him.  Atheism God does not exist, being impossible to know him and access him.  Agnosticism It is impossible to know or prove both the existence and the nonexistence of God. Indifference The question of God's existence is neither of interest nor of concern

Speculation about transhum anism

Transhumanism is an international cultural and intellectual movement that has as its ultimate goal to transform the human condition through the development and manufacture of widely available technologies that enhance human capabilities, both physically, psychologically or intellectually. Transhumanist thinkers study the potential benefits and dangers of new technologies that could overcome fundamental human limitations, as well as the appropriate technoethics in developing and using those technologies. They speculate that human beings may become capable of transforming themselves into beings with extensive capacities, deserving of the label "posthuman". 

What does the objectivist theory of valúes stand for? What about subjectivist theory?

- Objectivist theory of valúes. Valúes are qualities or properties that are in things, so they are objective. According to Max Scheler, valúes lie in valuable objects and the possibility of knowing them will depend on the culture, education and capacity of each moral subject.
-Subjectivist theory of valúes. There are no valuable things in themselves. Whether something is considered a valúe depends on the subjective appreciation of each individual or cultural group. Valúes are nothing more than names we give to things, qualities or actions that we consider desirable and preferable to others.
What is an ethical theory and what is its function? How have the first ethical theories been grouped together?
An ethical theory is a philosophical theory that tríes to base morality, justify its validity and legitimacy. It consists of a series of precepts or standards and a series of valúes to be justified. Sincé they emerged in Ancient Greece, ethical theories can be grouped into:
• As they consider that the foundation of moral norms and valúes is the pursuit of happiness,
• As they prioritize the guarantee of a situation of equality or impartiality such as justice.
Happiness is prudence. What did Aristotle understand for happiness? What is the meaning of midpoint? Give examples.
-Aristotle was one of the first philosophers to defend ethical eudemonism.
-The greatest happiness of the human being will reside in contemplative life and prudent moral conduct, defined as the ability to choose the midpoint appropriate to our nature. The midpoint is the exercise of moderation and will be different in each person. For example, when we talk about the amount of food we should eat, virtue will consist of the middle point between just eating nothing (defect) and being a glutton (excess).

Happiness is acceptance. What ethical doctrines can be considered stoic? What is the particular conception of the stoics of the world and therefore of man? How is correct behavior possible?
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According to the stoics both the world and the human being are limited by an inexorable destiny before which only an attitude of acceptance can be maintained.
-The cause of unhappiness is the desire for things to be different from how they are. Virtue, therefore, is the elimination of all passions. Happiness is only possible within a quiet life, achieved thanks to the imperturbability of the soul.

Happiness líes in the common good. Say what utilitarianism is all about. What is the main difference between utilitarianism and classical hedonism?
-According to the principle of usefulness the morally correct act is the one that provides greater pleasure or happiness to the greatest number of people.
-The main difference between utilitarianism and classical hedonism is that utilitarianism transcends the personal realm, Sincé it does not understand by happiness the interest or personal pleasure, but the máximum benefit for the greatest number of people. Pleasure is therefore a common or general good.

What, according to John Rawls, is the veil of ignorance and what does it intend to do?

Rawls imagines a hypothetical situation in which a number of people would have to establish the rules of coexistence that would order the society of which they were also going to be a part, but without knowing the place they would occupy in that society, social class or Work. This ignorance is called the veil of ignorance and is intended to ensure the fairness of legislators, so that no one in their model of society was harmed. In this way one would hope that a number of basic rights for the whole world would be agreed, which would help to define a genuine ethic of justice.